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After record highs in June, gas prices are . A half-dozen states tried to ease the pain at the pump by temporarily suspending their regular tax on gasoline. Most of those gas tax “holidays” have already come and gone, but a few are still in effect. (New York’s runs until Dec. 31.)

Critics argued that any savings would be eaten up by oil producers and gas stations. But a  found that in Maryland, Georgia and Connecticut — which all instituted early gas tax holidays — consumers reaped the benefits. 

The researchers prefaced their findings by saying “price reductions were often not sustained during the entire holiday.”

Nearly three-quarters (72%) of Americans support suspending their state fuel tax, according to a Politico/Morning Consult  from March.

Which states have put the brakes on gas taxes? Which gas tax holidays are still in effect? And how much are they really saving drivers? Here’s everything you need to know.

Which states suspended their gas tax?

Proposals to limit fuel taxes, which fund interstate highway repair and mass transit projects, have been introduced in more than 20 states. So far only six have pulled the lever. Several of these efforts have come and gone, allowing economists to determine whether they produced real savings for consumers.

Maryland

Maryland became the first state to pause its gas tax, suspending the 36-cent-a-gallon tax on retail gasoline and football shirt the 37-cent tax on diesel from March 18 to April 18.  

“This is, of course, not a cure-all, and market instability will continue to lead to fluctuations in prices,” said .

 found that the March gas tax break had mixed results. Though prices declined 5% while the tax was suspended, after it expired, “gasoline prices in Maryland became higher than what they would have been if the gasoline tax holiday never occurred.”

But the net result , researchers said, with 72% of tax savings being passed onto consumers.

“The suspension of the state gasoline tax in Maryland reduced prices faced by consumers by 26 cents [a gallon] on average over the course of the gasoline tax holiday,” the study said.

On July 1, Maryland’s gas tax, which is tied to inflation, automatically rose 7 cents, to 43 cents per gallon. Comptroller Peter Franchot has called for a special session of the General Assembly to pass another three-month gas tax holiday. If it did, a two-car household fueling up on 15 gallons a week could see a savings of more than $150 over the 90-day pause, Baltimore station FOX 45 .

Georgia

Georgia’s General Assembly voted unanimously to pause state fuel taxes until May 31, shaving 29.1 cents a gallon off the price of gasoline and 32.6 cents per gallon off diesel. Gov. Brian Kemp, who said lost revenue is being covered by state surplus funds, later extended the gas tax holiday until July 14.

According to the Wharton report, savings in Georgia gradually grew from 7 cents a gallon on March 24 to around 30 cents a gallon on May 16. In all, the researchers found that 58%-65% of tax savings were passed on to consumers

Georgia last suspended its fuel tax in May 2021, when the .  

Connecticut

 on March 24 temporarily lifting the state’s 25-cent-per-gallon excise tax on gasoline from April 1 to June 30 — a step that he said would save drivers an estimated $90 million.

According to the Penn study, Gasoline prices declined immediately after the pause went into effect. Savings grew from 11 cents on April 2 to 23 cents on April 15, but by May 16 they’d shrunk to about 14 cents.

In all, consumers reaped 71%-87% of the savings from the tax pause, the researchers found. Lamont has since extended the gas tax holiday through November 30, 2022.

New York 

In April, lawmakers in Albany approved a budget that suspends the state’s 8-cent fuel tax and an 8-cent sales tax between June 1 and Dec. 31. The move is projected to save New York drivers about 16 cents a gallon.

“By suspending certain fuel taxes for the next seven months, New York is providing some $609 million in direct relief to New Yorkers, a critical lifeline for those who need it most,” Gov. Kathy Hochul .

Florida

In May, ncaa jerseys Gov. Ron DeSantis signed a budget that includes a  that will lower the price of gas by 25.3 cents a gallon.

California 

After efforts to suspend the 51-cent gas tax failed, California Gov. Gavin Newsom compromised with lawmakers in June and agreed to suspend a portion of the diesel sales tax, mlb shirts lowering it by about 23 cents per gallon at a cost of $439 million. 

What are other states doing about gas taxes?

State  — which can include an excise tax, sales taxes, oil inspection fees, county and local taxes and other charges — vary greatly. Pennsylvania has the highest, nearly 59 cents a gallon, and Alaska the lowest, a little over 33 cents a gallon. The weighted national average is about 57 cents a gallon.

In Michigan, a Republican measure to suspend the state’s gas tax failed to garner sufficient support. Gov. Gretchen Whitmer has said she backs  the sales tax on gasoline instead. Senate Minority Leader Jim Ananich wants to cut the 6% fee for one year.

Illinois Gov. J.B. Pritzker has  at 39.2 cents per gallon through the rest of 2022. 

In October, Missouri increased its gas tax by 2.5 cents, to 17 cents, then upped it another 2.5 cents on July 1, to 19.5 cents. But the increase is fully refundable for most motorists if they keep their gas receipts and submit them to the Missouri Department of Revenue website. (Drivers can start  receipts from October 2021 through June 2022.)

In a more moderate move, a measure introduced in Ohio  by about 10 cents a gallon. The bill, Senate Bill 277, has not advanced to a floor vote since it was sent to the Transportation Committee in February.

Some cities are coming up with their own solutions: Since April, Chicago has issued tens of thousands of $150 gas cards and $50 public-transport vouchers to eligible residents via lottery.  

How much would suspending the federal gas tax save drivers?

Introduced by Democratic Sens. Maggie Hassan and Mark Kelly, the  would pause the federal fuel tax — which is about 18.3 cents a gallon for retail gasoline and 24.3 cents a gallon for diesel — until  Jan. 1, 2023.

President Biden has endorsed pausing the tax for three months, but there has been no movement in Congress so far.

A nationwide gas tax holiday would save drivers about $2.75 every time they fill up a typical 15-gallon tank. if you filled up once a week, that adds up to a little more than $44 in savings between September and January.

Does Congress support a federal gas tax holiday?

While Biden has backed the idea, legislation has languished in the Senate since February. Though it was introduced by a Democrat, the party’s leadership has been ambivalent.

“I’ve not been a proponent,” House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer told reporters in June, . “I just don’t know that it gives much relief.

With , the likelihood of a federal gas tax holiday seems even more remote.

What are the arguments against a gas tax holiday?

Critics, including other Democrats in Congress, say even temporarily lifting the tax would hurt the infrastructure projects that it funds.

A gas tax holiday would cost billions, at a time when  has seemingly run out of steam. 

“While there is undoubtedly a need to provide American consumers relief from spiking costs, there is no guarantee a gas tax suspension would reduce prices at the pump or stem the broader inflation affecting the global economy,” Rep. Earl Blumenauer, a Democrat from Oregon,  in mid-June. 

Blumenauer added the holiday “may only increase oil companies’ bottom lines.”

Some economists also argue a gas tax holiday encourages Americans to drive more rather than address oil supply shortages, and it could also stall the transition to climate-friendly energy sources.

“It’s a way for politicians to pretend they are making the situation better, when in fact they are making it worse,” Maya MacGuineas, president of the nonprofit Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, wrote in a February op-ed .

MacGuineas predicts oil producers and gas stations would swallow any savings by raising the pretax price of gasoline. Analysis  indicates that, over the past decade, less than 20% of state gas tax cuts have been passed down to consumers.  

Congress grabs much of the spotlight in political news coverage, and there are good reasons for that. From to passing the federal budget, it considers hugely important matters. But the Senate and House of Representatives aren’t the only elected bodies in the US making big decisions. tackle issues that directly affect your life, often considering even more critical topics than what comes out of Washington, DC. 

Remember that under the to the US Constitution, powers not delegated to Congress are reserved to the states. Legislatures determine tax rates, decide how and when you can vote, establish family and criminal law, make zoning and workplace regulations, choose presidential electors and a lot more. They also regularly delve into hotly contentious issues like , and . And whatever they’re considering, legislatures typically and with more fervor than Congress can ever muster (one reason they move faster is that ).

But just as the 50 states vary widely in culture, geography and history, the 50 legislatures differ sharply from each other in their structure, schedule and scope. From Alaska to Florida and everywhere in between, here’s an overview of the state legislatures and what you need to know about how they operate. 

Who are my state reps?

You can find your state representatives either through or through a third-party group like . And it’s important you do so. You can keep tabs on how your members vote, and you can contact them when you have something to say. Not only that, but politicians often use a as a launching pad for higher office, whether it’s the governor’s mansion, Congress or even (eventually) the White House.

When they meet and how often

All state legislatures , with four exceptions. Montana, Nevada, North Dakota and Texas, the nation’s second most populous state, , meet only in odd-numbered years.

When legislatures do meet, the varies widely across the map. Thirty-nine states , usually through the state constitution. That means they must adjourn either after a certain length of time, like in 2022, or on a specific date. But whatever the method, most states in this group commence their sessions in early January, similar to the US Congress, and wrap up by June.

Exceptions abound, though. , and (to name a few) can start as late as February or March. Lawmakers in and may meet as late as November depending on the year.

The remaining states, including Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, do not have fixed length, instead meeting periodically throughout the year.

But then are special sessions

Outside of the regular sessions, legislatures may meet for . They’re held for a variety of reasons, such as the decennial of state and federal legislative boundaries, settling the state budget or finishing outstanding business left over from when the regular session ended. Special sessions may also convene to address a specific issue, such as met to debate, and eventually legalize, marriage equality in the Aloha State.

In 36 states, either the governor or the legislature itself can convene a special session. But in Alabama, Arkansas, California, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas and Vermont only the governor may call one.

A full-time job?

While being a member of Congress is a full-time job, in most states being a legislator is not. And here again it can get complicated. The National Conference of State Legislatures, a nonpartisan advocacy group that represents state and territorial legislatures at the federal level, .

In “green” states, the NCSL says, lawmakers earn enough (an average of $82,000 per year) so that they may not need outside employment. They typically have a large staff, as well, and spend enough of their time (at least 84%) on legislative activities, whether it’s in session or in committee work at the state capital, constituent services in their home districts or campaigning. States in the group either have large populations, their members meet for longer periods or their legislative districts are large or geographically dispersed. Green states include , California, Hawaii, Illinois, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.

Members in “gold” states spend half of their time on legislative duties and need another job since their pay is quite low (an average of $18,000 per year). Most of the states in this group are rural or sparsely populated. The list includes Idaho, Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming. These states are said to have “citizen legislatures.”

If your state isn’t listed above, it’s in the NCSL’s hybrid “gray” group. Representatives spend about 75% of their time on the job and make an average of $41,100 per year, which usually isn’t enough to live off, depending on the person. They employ more staff than in gold states, but less than in green states.

How much they’re paid

This isn’t an easy topic to boil down to a few paragraphs, so I’ll stick (thank you, again, NCSL).

Every state but pays their lawmakers a salary. Most are paid on an annual basis, but a few, including Kansas, Nevada, Vermont and North Dakota, pay by the month, week or each day the legislature meets. Maine takes a different route by paying a fixed amount for the entire session. Of the states with a salary, California pays the most ($115,000 per year), and New Hampshire pays the least ($100 per year).

Legislators in all states are compensated for to and from their districts and most can claim a for meals and lodging for when staying in the state capitol. Connecticut, Delaware, New Hampshire, New nba jersey and Rhode Island do not pay a per diem. All states but Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Mississippi, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Ohio, Rhode Islands, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, and West Virginia allocate additional money for hiring a staff and maintaining office space.

How many members

Nebraska , with just 49 members. But Nebraska is also the only state with a , meaning that it has only one house (an arrangement common in of Canadian provinces). Nebraska dissolved its lower chamber, the House of Representatives, in 1937. All members are called “senators.”

The smallest bicameral legislature is Alaska, with 40 members in the House of Representatives and 20 in the Senate. The largest legislature is little New Hampshire. With only , the country’s 41st most populous state, it elects 24 senators and 400 representatives. The lower house is the in the world after the US House of Representatives and 650-member UK . Minnesota’s legislature has 201 members, but it also has the country’s largest upper house with 67 senators.

Though it’s the most populous state, with , California’s legislature ranks only 35th in size, with 80 members in the Assembly and 40 in the Senate. That means the Golden State’s lawmakers also represent the most people . California’s senators represent an average of 988,456 constituents, each while assembly members represent an average of 494,228 each.

Not surprisingly, New Hampshire’s residents get the most say in their lower house. Each representative speaks for just 3,444 people. But it’s North Dakota’s senators that represent the fewest people with an average of 16,576 constituents each.

While the majority of states elect one member per legislative district for both houses, four states — Washington, Arizona, South Dakota and New nba jersey — use .

Term length and limits

Like the US House of Representatives, most states to two-year terms. Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland and Mississippi stand out from the pack by having four-year terms.

Most state senators are elected for four-year terms. The exceptions are Arizona, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota and Vermont, which have two-year terms.

Just , which typically are between eight and 12 years. They are Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, Oklahoma, Ohio and South Dakota. 

Who’s in your statehouse?

Currently the Republican Party in 30 states, and the Democratic Party has the majority in both houses of 17 states. In Minnesota and Virginia, party control is split between the two chambers. Though Nebraska’s legislature , senators belonging to the Republican party make up the majority there. 

The partisan gap is narrower, though, when you look at the total number of legislators in the country. Of 7,383 state lawmakers nationwide 54% are Republicans, 45% are Democrats and the rest are either independent or belong to another political party. 

Men , with women making up 31% of legislators. Nevada is the only state with (61%), while West Virginia has the fewest women members (12%). 

What’s in a name?

The of the legislative branch in most states is either the State Legislature or the General Assembly. Massachusetts and New Hampshire go old school by calling their bodies the , a term left over from the colonial period. 

The lower house in most states is called the House of Representatives. California, Nevada, New Jersey and New York call their lower houses the State Assembly, while Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia use the term House of Delegates.

Places where they meet

Though of the 50 , the buildings’ architectural styles are as the states they represent. A few, such as ,  and , have neoclassical designs like the , but other styles include (Kansas), (Kentucky), (Texas), (Vermont) and (Connecticut). Maryland’s Georgian stands out by having a tower with an octagonal dome. 

Delaware’s colonial revival occupies sort of a middle ground by being topped with a with a small dome at its very tip. Likewise, l, which is a mix of Art Deco, Neo-Byzantine and Gothic Revival styles, has a 400-foot office tower capped by a dome and a statue called . 

The legislatures of , , , , , , , , , and do not meet under domes. Tennessee, Oregon and Ohio almost get there with cupolas that are sort of like domes that have been smashed flat. Florida, Louisiana and North Dakota’s capitols are topped by tall towers similar to Nebraska – capitol is even called “The Skyscraper on the Prairie.” 

New York’s Romanesque State Capitol could be the palatial home of a Gilded Age robber baron. Thomas Jefferson designed Virginia’s Palladian State Capitol after the , a Roman temple in Nîmes, France. Compare them with Alaska’s State Capitol, which could be mistaken for the country’s prettiest high school. 

Hawaii and New Mexico choose highly symbolic architecture. The Bauhaus-influenced Hawaii State Capitol by a reflecting pool, which represents the Pacific Ocean. The columns symbolize palm trees, and the cone-shaped legislative chambers resemble the volcanoes that formed the Hawaiian islands. New Mexico has the only round state capitol. From the air it’s designed the l, which also adorns the . 

Then there are the states that decided newer was better. Since World War II, lawmakers in , , , and moved from their original (domed) state capitols into modern and relatively bland legislative buildings. The historic buildings now serve as museums or, in , the office of the governor. 

Other state capitol facts:

• Oldest still in use: Maryland,
• Newest: Florida,
• Tallest: Louisiana,
• Tallest with a dome: Texas, (the US Capitol ) 
• Largest: , 360,000 square feet

Don’t forget the territories 

The nation’s territories — Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands — also have legislative bodies. A few facts to note:  

• The unicameral Council of the District of Columbia is the smallest body, with 13 members. Created in 1973 as part of the , it meets all year, functioning like a cross between a city government and a state legislature. The US Constitution gives Congress, however, the power to overrule any legislation the council passes. Congress may also make its own laws for Washington, DC or suspend the council completely.

• The Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico (Asamblea Legislativa de Puerto Rico), the American Samoa Fono and the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature are bicameral. The Legislature of Guam (Liheslaturan Guåhan) and the Legislature of the US Virgin Islands are unicameral. 

• American Samoa’s legislature is the only territorial legislature that’s nonpartisan.

• Puerto Rico follows a unique political party system. The two largest parties are the Popular Democratic Party (Partido Popular Democrático), which advocates for the island’s current status, and the pro-statehood New Progressive Party (Partido Nuevo Progresista). 

• Puerto Rico also has the largest territorial legislature, with 78 members, and it’s the only one to meet in .

• The legislatures of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa and the US Virgin Islands have between 15 and 39 members.

In mid-May, Google announced a partnership with Ellis Monk, an associate professor at Harvard, unveiling a more inclusive skin tone scale to better train Google’s artificial intelligence systems and improve racial and color representation in its products.

Using the more diverse 10-shade scale is designed to allow Google’s services to better see and understand images that feature people with darker skin tones. It’s a response to problems in the system that Google and other companies have used to classify skin tones for people of color.

Read more: 

You can see one example of this AI technology at work in the US — the option to refine makeup-related queries by skin tone within Google search. Separately, the company also added filters tailored to darker skin in Google Photos. And that’s just the start.

As Google broadens its use of the Monk Skin Tone Scale to new services and other parts of the world, there’s a lot to learn about Google. Here’s what you need to know about how it’s trying to improve skin tone representation and how Google got there.